Introduction
Ever-higher sporting achievements and competition for leadership require continual improvement in training quality and effectiveness. Progress in swimming depends greatly on continually refining athlete preparation methods.
Improving young swimmers’ physical preparation matters throughout the training macrocycle, but the preparatory period is pivotal. It establishes the functional readiness underlying every other aspect of preparation. This requires rationally organised training that respects physiological adaptation to exertion, the staged and sequential mobilisation of reserves, and improvement of functional properties.
Object, subject and objective
The research object was young sprint swimmers’ training using an interval hypoxic exercise complex.
The research subject was functional capacity and speed readiness in sprint swimmers aged 13–15.
The objective was to study interval hypoxic training’s influence on functional capacity and speed readiness in young sprint swimmers.
The hypothesis was that training is effective when sessions follow a stable structure and load components interact systematically throughout preparation. Additional intermittent hypoxic means were expected to improve functional capacity and speed readiness and thereby sporting results.
Research tasks
The following tasks were set:
1. Analyse scientific-methodological literature on anaerobically oriented training of adolescent sprint swimmers.
2. Develop and test an interval hypoxic exercise complex for adolescent sprint swimmers based on the literature.
3. Assess cardiovascular and respiratory functional reserves in adolescent sprint swimmers.
4. Determine sprint swimmers’ speed-readiness measures.
5. Study changes in functional reserves and speed readiness during hypoxic training.
Methods and organisation
The methodological framework followed the objectives: literature analysis, organisation of experimental work and statistical processing.
Cardiovascular capacity was assessed using heart rate, endurance coefficient and Robinson index after orthostatic exposure. Respiratory assessment used breathing rate, vital capacity, vital index, inspiratory Stange and expiratory Genchi breath-holding times, and Skibinskaya index.
Speed was assessed by four tasks: 10 m from a start, flying 10 m, 15 m with a turn, and 50 m freestyle from a start.
Student’s criterion was used for statistical processing. Arithmetic mean M, mean error m and difference statistic T were calculated. Significance p was read from a table using T and sample size n; p<0.05 was considered significant.
The study ran from September 2020 to April 2021 with ten male swimmers aged 13–15, training in Saratov’s pool in advanced sports groups and holding first adult sports rank. Training took place in a 50-m pool. All were medically cleared.
Two groups were formed for the pedagogical experiment, control and experimental, each containing five male freestyle sprint swimmers.
Both groups trained twice daily except Sundays under one coach and the same annual sports-school programme. The experimental group additionally used stimulating hypoxic means after the principal sessions. Ongoing and final testing were conducted; assessments took place in September 2020 and April 2021 under identical conditions.
Propositions and significance
1. Interval hypoxic training combined with multidirectional training loads can produce greater training effects, faster specific adaptation and improved sprint results in adolescent swimmers.
2. Correctly selected means, methods and ratios of different training loads throughout the year and individual phases are important for functional and physical development.
Theoretical significance: concepts of anaerobically oriented adolescent sprint-swimming training were synthesised.
Practical significance lies in applying the results in children’s and youth swimming-school coaching. The proposed interval hypoxic regimens may be used in different sprint-swimming preparation periods.
The master’s thesis contains an introduction, two chapters—Theoretical Analysis of Anaerobically Oriented Training in Adolescent Sprint Swimming and Changes in Functional Capacity and Speed Readiness of 13–15-Year-Old Sprint Swimmers during Hypoxic Training—a conclusion and 45 references. The thesis itself is 53 pages with seven tables and seven figures.
Theoretical analysis
One way to increase performance is to intensify training of oxygen-supply systems and tolerance of hypoxia and hypercapnia. The source describes hypercapnia, increased arterial and tissue CO₂ tension, as a special type of hypoxia. Breath-holding methods reduce oxygen supply to working tissues. Oxygen deprivation can have many causes; hypoxia develops when tissue oxygen delivery or utilisation is insufficient.
Hypoxic training seeks to increase oxygen-transport and buffering capacity of blood through low oxygen and excess CO₂. Developing effective energy supply for training loads is important in athlete preparation.
Hypoxic training uses different breathing patterns. Breath holding after inhalation or exhalation requires exertion without breathing. Expiratory breath holding has stronger effects but is harder to perform.
Sprint swimmers need specific training for speed over 25, 50 or 100 m. Breath-holding has long been used to increase hypoxia tolerance. In swimming it involves taking breaths at selected arm-stroke intervals, less frequently than usual, thereby restricting oxygen delivery.
Adding 25- and 50-m races to major competitions stimulated the search for effective sprint methods. Many outstanding swimmers complete them without breathing. Each breath has been shown to add 0.1–0.2 seconds, potentially decisive for victory.
Anaerobic training requires appropriate rest intervals and repetition counts. For alactic work, rest must be substantial and sufficient: 1.5–2 minutes between 25-m repetitions, sets of three or four, and up to two or three minutes between sets.
These methods improve functional and physical measures through adaptation of leading body systems. Training is effective when sessions have stable structure and correctly selected means and methods interact systematically.
Experimental programme
An exercise complex was developed as an additional means of interval or intermittent hypoxia for the pedagogical experiment (Table 1).
The complex supplements conventional hypoxic swimming with breathing every three, five or seven stroke cycles, used by both groups. Their macrocycle programmes therefore contained different percentage proportions of hypoxic means.
Swimmers’ current functional capacity to perform exercise efficiently in training and competition determines performance. Functional readiness reflects muscular energy supply, oxygen provision and effective operation of the whole organism.
Modern swimming involves increasingly intense training and competition. Improving functional readiness is therefore important. Initial assessment and ongoing monitoring identify young athletes’ ability to achieve strong competitive results.
Baseline functional and strength measures showed no between-group differences, indicating homogeneous groups. Repeat assessment after six months of the hypoxic complex found favourable changes in both groups, especially the experimental group.
Author’s recommendations
The research produced the following recommendations for effective interval hypoxic training:
1. Positive functional adaptation and sporting results require systematic inclusion throughout the macrocycle.
2. Breaks between interval hypoxic training cycles should not exceed four to six weeks.
3. Hypoxic work should occupy up to one third of each water session.
4. Once a swimmer becomes accustomed to breathing at a particular stroke interval, move to another, more energy-demanding interval.
Breath-holding training is an intensive stimulus and must be planned and used cautiously. Swimmers should cover near-maximal rather than maximal possible distances while holding their breath.
Conclusion
Improving oxygen-supply systems and hypoxia tolerance can increase physical performance. Sprint swimming needs specific preparation: greater movement power but somewhat less endurance than middle- or long-distance swimming. Breath-holding improves speed through more rational body position, better statodynamic stability, lower resistance and improved coordination without the breathing cycle. Long breath holds also support performance after starts, turns and in the finish section.
Conclusions
1. Literature analysis showed that adolescent sprint swimmers need specific training focused on short-distance speed.
2. An interval hypoxic complex was developed and tested to complement conventional swimming with breathing every three, five or seven stroke cycles.
3. Baseline functional reserves did not differ significantly between groups:
Heart rate and blood pressure were within age-specific physiological norms.
The endurance coefficient indicated reduced cardiovascular functional capacity in both groups.
Robinson index indicated average reserves.
Orthostatic responses were satisfactory, with increased heart rate, systolic and pulse pressure but unchanged diastolic pressure.
Respiratory rate was physiologically normal in both groups.
Mean vital capacity exceeded age norms.
Vital index was above average in all swimmers.
Stange and Genchi tests indicated good hypoxia and hypercapnia tolerance.
Skibinskaya index indicated satisfactory functional reserves in both groups.
4. No significant baseline between-group differences occurred in any speed-readiness measure.
5. Functional and speed changes during training were greater in the experimental group:
Heart rate and blood pressure declined.
The endurance coefficient indicated adequate circulatory capacity.
A lower Robinson index reflected greater cardiovascular reserves and good aerobic capacity.
At stage 2, orthostatic response was good experimentally and satisfactory in controls.
Respiratory rate declined while vital capacity increased.
Vital index reached the high category.
Hypoxia and hypercapnia tolerance was substantially greater experimentally.
Despite higher mean Skibinskaya index values, both groups remained in the satisfactory cardiovascular and respiratory functional-capacity category.
The experimental group improved starting and distance speed, overall speed readiness and speed-turn performance more substantially.
Table 1. Experimental group's interval hypoxic training complex
| Stage | Duration | On land | In water, at session end |
|---|---|---|---|
| General preparation | 5 weeks | 10 × 30-s breath holds, 1.5-min rests | 8 × 25 m without breathing, 1.5-min rest; after every session |
| Basic/special preparation | 5 weeks | 8 × 45 s, 2.5-min rests | 12 × 50 m, breath every 5 cycles, 2-min rest; after every session |
| Precompetition and competition | 2 weeks | 5 × 1 min, 3.5-min rests | 12 × 50 m, breath after maximum possible cycles, 5-min rest; after every session |
| Recovery | 1 week | 8 × 45 s, 2.5-min rests | 1000 m, breath every 5–7 cycles; twice weekly |
| Maintenance | 8 weeks | 10 × 30 s, 1.5-min rests | General physical preparation on land |
The original study programme is reproduced; participants were medically cleared and trained under one coach.
References
Full main-text translation of: Бекетова А.А. Повышение функциональных возможностей и скоростной подготовленности пловцов-спринтеров в процессе гипоксической тренировки. Автореферат магистерской работы. Саратовский национальный исследовательский государственный университет им. Н.Г. Чернышевского. Саратов, 2021. 12 с.
Related resources
Related resources cover technology, equipment and applications.